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YAMAHA

AUTHORIZED

PRODUCT MANUAL

P-2200/2201

SYSTEM AMPLIFIER

P-2200/2201

OPERATING MANUAL

ABOUT THIS MANUAL

SCOPE

The P-2200 is a system oriented amplifier, made to be

used in conjunction with mixers, consoles, frequency

dividing networks and speakers — those made by

Yamaha or by other manufacturers. Like any power

amplifier, the P-2200's performance depends on system

design and installation, in addition to its own capabilities.

Thus, the P-2200 Operating Manual is system oriented,

describing system design parameters and installation

techniques, as well as the operation and performance of

the P-2200.

Additionally, this manual reviews a few of the basic

mathematic tools used in system design, from dB to

Ohm's law.

ORGANIZATION

We recommend that you read the entire Operating

Manual. However, if you are using the P-2200 in an

existing system, and you are familiar with high power

amplifiers, the BRIEF OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS,

Pages

One

contain all the

information

necessary

for

basic connections and operation.

The SPECIFICATION sections, (Sections THREE

and FOUR) are highly detailed, including oscilloscope

photos, and discussions of the P-2200's excellent

performance specifications. The last part of the

SPECIFICATIONS section is a discussion of the

advantages of professional equipment, like the P-2200,

compared to hi-fi or semi-pro equipment.

The INSTALLATION AND DETAILED

OPERATION section, which begins on Page SIX 1,

includes more complete instructions, special considera-

tions for using the P-2200 "on the road," as well as in

permanent commercial and studio installations. This

section also covers grounding and shielding concepts,

cabling considerations, and several other topics.

The APPLICATIONS section, which begins on Page

SEVEN 1, discusses the use of the P-2200 in several

typical setups, and includes wiring diagrams. This section

also covers other devices that are normally associated

with a power amplifier, from graphic equalizers to

compressor/limiters.

The APPENDIX, on Page EIGHT 1, discusses

definitions of a number of the terms used in the manual,

and reviews some of the basic mathematic tools used in

system design, such as the dB, Ohm's law, voltage

division, and power formulas.

NOTE: The P2201 is identical to the P-2200 except

there are no Peak Reading Meters.

THE P-2200/2201 BRIEF OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS SECTION ONE

INTRODUCTION SECTION TWO

GENERAL SPECIFICATIONS SECTION THREE

PERFORMANCE GRAPHS & A DISCUSSION OF SPECIFICATIONS SECTION FOUR

THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN PROFESSIONAL AND HI-FI EQUIPMENT SECTION FIVE

IMPEDANCE

OPERATING LEVELS

DYNAMIC RANGE

GAIN OVERLAP AND HEADROOM

INPUT SENSITIVITY RATINGS

PROFESSIONAL EQUIPMENT ADVANTAGES

INSTALLATION AND DETAILED OPERATION

SECTION SIX

PHYSICAL MOUNTING

CABLING AND IMPEDANCE MATCHING

ACTIONS OF THE P-2200 PROTECTION CIRCUITS

GROUNDING AND SHIELDING

AC: POWER, FUSES, ACCESSORY OUTLETS, WIRING, SAFETY

MONO OPERATION

APPLICATIONS

BIAMPLIFICATION AND TRIAMPLIFICATION

SECTION SEVEN

ECHO, REVERB AND DELAY

COMPRESSION AND LIMITING

EQUALIZATION, HIGH AND LOW PASS FILTERS

SPEAKER PROTECTION

SPECIFIC APPLICATIONS

APPENDIX

SECTION EIGHT

DEFINITION OF TERMS: dB, dBV, dBm and dB SPL

SPECIAL USE OF dB (VOLTS) IN THIS MANUAL

OHM'S LAW

POWER

IMPEDANCE

SERIES AND PARALLEL IMPEDANCE CONNECTIONS

VOLTAGE AND CURRENT DIVISION

BALANCED, UNBALANCED, AND FLOATING CIRCUITS

TRANSFORMERS

THE P-2200/2201 BRIEF OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS

Fig. 1A - P-2200 Front Panel

Fig. 1B - P2201 Front Panel

A. Input Attenuators

Calibrated, stepped input attenuators lower input

signal levels ahead of amplification stages.

B. Peak Reading Meters (P-2200 only)

Meters display instantaneous (peak) power output

into

8-ohm load

over

full

50dB range;

"0dB"

100 Watts into 8 ohms.

C. Thermal Warning Indicator

Warns of overheating before thermal protection

circuit turns off the AC power.

D. Power Indicator

Glows when the power switch is "on."

E. On-Off Switch

Controls AC power to the P-2200 or P2201.

NOTE: The P2201 is identical to the P-2200 except

there are no Peak Reading Meters. Both are made to be

mounted in a standard 19" wide electronic equipment

rack. Each of them takes up 7" (17.6cm) of vertical

space, and extends 13" (33.0cm ) behind its front panel.

For portable racks, we recommend bracing the rear of

the amplifiers.

Fig. 2A - P-2200 Rear Panel*

Fig. 2B - P2201 Rear Panel*

A. Input Connectors

The two XLR input connectors on each channel are

unbalanced and are wired in parallel with each other

and with the two phone jacks (tip/sleeve type).

B. Input Polarity Switch

Determines the polarity of the two XLR input

connectors (Pin

or Pin

hot

");

does

not

affect

the

two phone jacks. See diagram on the rear panel.

NOTES:

1. Input impedance is 25k-ohms minimum; +4dB

(1.23V) produces 230 watts output into 8 ohms

(44.7V).

2. Input channels may be parallelled by connecting

them together with phone to phone or XLR to XLR

cables as shown on Page SIX 7.

3. Input transformers for matching or isolation,

should be located several inches from the P-2200 or

P2201's

power transformer

for

maximum

hum

rejection.

C. Output Connectors

Standard 5-way binding posts (3/4" spacing) accept

banana plugs or direct-wired connections.

NOTES:

1. Maximum power output into 8 ohms is 230 watts;

power output rises at lower impedances.

2. Protection circuitry towers power output when

load impedance falls below 2.5 ohms.

D. AC Power Cord

For the U.S. and Canadian models, the P-2200/2201

require 117 VAC 50 or 60 Hz line (105 V min., 135 V

max.; 8 amps max. at 120 volts).

For the Australian model: 240V AC 50 or 60 Hz.

For other territories' models, an internal voltage

selector (220 V/240 V switchable) is provided near the

rear panel. In this case 220 V is factory-preset. If you

want

change

into

240

line,

consult

your

nearest

Yamaha dealer.

E. Fuses

7 amp, 125 volt (x 2), type AGC (3AG); U.S. and

Canadian models only. 4 amp, 250 volt (x 2); other

territories models. Fuses should always be replaced

with

same

size

and

type.

the

fuses

blow

consistently,

the amplifier should be checked by a qualified Yamaha

service technician.

F. AC Accessory Outlets

These convenience outlets are made for low power

cooling fans. Not provided in certain areas.

The rear panels shown here are subject to U.S. specifications.

INTRODUCTION

The P-2200 is not just "another big amplifier;" it is

an exciting new approach to high power sound. Yamaha's

leadership is clearly demonstrated by the P-2200's pro-

fessional features, sophisticated design, and uncom-

promising performance.

PEAK READING METERS*

Instead of the more common and slow responding

VU meters, the P-2200 has PEAK READING METERS

that

accurately display

full

five

decades

(50dB)

output level. The peak meters have large, illuminated

faces marked with dB and with watts into 8 ohms. The

fast responding meters provide a better way to see the

program dynamics, the transient power demands placed

on the system, and the available headroom. By indicating

headroom, the meters help the operator avoid over-

driving the system, thereby preventing the "clipped"

waveforms so dangerous to drivers and loudspeakers.

CALIBRATED INPUT ATTENUATORS

The P-2200 has log-linear INPUT ATTENUATORS to

complement its peak reading meters. The input attenua-

tors are marked in 22dB-calibrated steps, detented for

extra accuracy. The attenuators provide a smooth, noise

free transition from the highest to the lowest audio level.

dB-calibrated

input

attenuators

have

numerous

advantages: on the road, they allow predictable and

repeatable setups; in commercial sound applications,

they allow easy, accurate input sensitivity adjustments;

in studios or discos, they let operators simultaneously

adjust the level of two channels (or two programs on

separate amplifiers) with precise tracking.

INPUT AND OUTPUT CONNECTIONS

INPUT CONNECTORS for each channel include one

"male" and one "female" XLR connector (unbalanced)

plus two parallel phone jacks. This provides the flexi-

bility

necessary

for

convenient bridging

another

amplifier, as well as for adapter-free connection to

almost any mixer. A POLARITY switch allows either

pin 2 or pin 3 of the XLR to be chosen as the "hot"

lead, satisfying DIN/JIS or USA standards. Outputs are

standard five way binding posts, usable with high current

"banana" plugs or direct wired connections.

MONAURAL OPERATION

The P-2200 may be converted to a monaural "super

amplifier" by inserting two matched transformers

ahead of the inputs, feeding the same signal to both,

and reversing the POLARITY switch on one input. This

creates a transformerless balanced output, the speaker

load "bridged" across the "hot" terminals of both

channels. In this mode, the P-2200 is suitable for

driving almost any load, including highly reactive 70-volt

commercial speaker lines. With a full 400 watts into

16 ohms, the P-2200 in mono mode eliminates the need

for several smaller 70-volt amplifiers.

PERFORMANCE

The P-2200's performance is as impressive as its

features. At a sustained output of 230 watts into 8 ohms

(for each channel), there is plenty of punch to reproduce

the powerful peaks essential to clean studio monitoring.

High power handling also makes the P-2200 an unbeat-

able choice for live rock or disco sound systems, where

an amplifier can really "cook" all night long. Power alone

virtue;

the P-2200

has

ultra-low

distortion,

less

than

0.05% THD at full rated power - the kind of low

distortion that is undetectable by even the most critical

listeners.

A high damping factor of better than 300 at

frequencies below 1kHz reduces the tendency for

speaker cone overshoot, giving tighter and better defined

bass response. On the other end, the P-2200's frequency

response extends well beyond 100kHz, enabling it to

accurately reproduce the most complex musical wave-

forms — even the tortuous output of today's synthe-

sizers. However, high frequency response has not been

achieved at the expense of stability; in fact, the P-2200

is rock steady. Even when connected to highly reactive

multi-speaker loads, there is no tendency to shut down

or "take off" into spurious oscillation.

MECHANICAL CONSIDERATIONS

The P-2200 is constructed to withstand the high "G"

forces encountered on the road. Its solid front panel

mounts in any standard 19-inch rack, and, for a large

amplifier, the P-2200 weighs a modest 44 pounds

(20kg)** Front panel controls and meters are recessed to

avoid damage or accidental setting changes, and are

further protected by a pair of sturdy carrying handles.

Inside

and

out,

the P-2200

extremely reliable.

Still,

should

service

ever

required, the

unit

designed

for

easy access. Massive side-mounted heat sinks are

designed for efficient cooling, making fans unnecessary

in all but the most severe thermal operating conditions.

Four non-conductive feet ensure proper air flow when

the amplifier is shelf mounted, and avoid inadvertent

ground loops. Multiple protection circuits make the

amplifier nearly abuse proof and eliminate the need for

troublesome DC power supply fuses.

* The P2201 does not have the Peak Reading Meters.

* * The P2201 weighs 42 pounds (19kg)

GENERAL SPECIFICATIONS

Power Output Per Channel: (Refer to Figure 3. Ambient

room temperature for tests: 25-degrees Centigrade.)

200 Watts continuous average sine wave power into

ohms

with

less

than

0.05%

THD,

(Total

Harmonic

Distortion), over a bandwidth of 20Hz to 20kHz,

both channels driven.

230 Watts continuous average sine wave power into

ohms

with

less

than

0.05%

THD,

kHz,

both

channels driven.

Frequency Response: (Refer to Figure 5.)

+0dB, -0.5dB, 20Hz to 50kHz.

Total Harmonic Distortion: (Refer to Figure 6.)

Less than 0.005% @ 50 Watts, 8 ohms, 1kHz.

Less than 0.01% @ 150 Watts, 8 ohms, 20Hz to

20kHz.

Intermodulation Distortion: (Refer to Figure 7.)

Less than 0.01% using frequencies of 70Hz and

7kHz, mixed in a ratio of 4:1, single channel power

output of 150 Watts into 8 ohms.

Input Sensitivity:

An input of +4dB* (1.23V), ±0.5dB, produces an

output of 230 Watts into 8 ohms (maximum output

power), INPUT attenuator set for maximum level.

Input Impedance:

25k-ohms, minimum (unbalanced).

Damping Factor: (@ 8 ohms / (Refer to Figure 8.)

Greater than 300 at any frequency from 20Hz to

1kHz; greater than 70 at any frequency from 20Hz

to 20kHz.

Actual Output Impedance: (Refer to Figure 9.)

Less than 0.04 ohms, from 20Hz to 10kHz.

Hum and Noise:

At least 110dB signal-to-noise ratio (l.H.F./A.S.A.

No. Z24.3-1944).

Rise Time:

3.8 microseconds, or better (10%-90% of 1 volt @

1kHz square wave output).

Slew Rate:

45 volts per microsecond, or better (at 175 Watts into

8 ohms, 200kHz square-wave input).

Channel Separation: (Refer to Figure 10.)

At least 82dB at 1kHz, at least 75dB at 20kHz.

*In these specifications, when dB represents a specific voltage,

0dB is referenced to 0.775V. "dB" is a voltage level, whereas

"dBm" is a power level. 0dBm is referenced to 1mW (0.775V

driving a 600-ohm termination). For example, when 12.3V is

fed to a high impedance, the level is designated "+24dB." When

+24dB (12.3 volts) drives a 600-ohm termination, the level is

designated "+24dBm." The level in "dB" is specified, wherever

applicable, to avoid confusion when the input is fed by various

low and high impedance sources. See the APPENDIX beginning

on Page EIGHT 1 for a further discussion of dB.

Phase Shift: (Refer to Figure 11.)

20Hz to 20kHz, ±10 degrees.

Offset Voltage:

Less than ±10mV DC.

Unit Step Function Response: (Refer to Figure 27.)

See scope photo (Page FOUR 4) and discussion,

Page FOUR 6.

Thermal Specifications:

Massive black anodized heat sinks are thermally

joined with the chassis, thereby utilizing the entire

amplifier as a heat sink.

Protection Circuits:

Thermal warning light turns on when heat sink

temperature reaches 100-degrees Centigrade.

A self-resetting thermal switch shuts down the AC

power if the power transformer winding temperature

reaches 130-degrees Centigrade. See Page SIX 13 for

power overload circuit specs.

Turn On/Turn Off Specs:

There is no turn off transient; the turn on transient

minimal

(see

Page

SIX

13).

Warm

time

less

than 0.2 seconds.

Power Requirements:

For the U.S. and Canadian models: AC, 120 Volts

nominal, 50-60Hz (105V min., 135V max.); 8

amperes maximum at 120V AC; 960 volt-amperes

maximum at 120 Volts; approximately 57 volt-

amperes at idle.

For other territories models: 1,300 Watts, 220 or 240

Volts AC nominal, 50-60Hz.

Efficiency: (Refer to Figure 12.)

As high as 63%; see Page FOUR 2.

NOTE: All performance specifications are made on U.S.

and Canadian models at an AC line voltage of 120 Volts

±1%, using a ±1% nonreactive load resistor at an

ambient room temperature of 25-degrees Centigrade.

Also effective for other territories' models.

Input Connectors:

One "male" and one "female" XLR connector in

parallel,

"hot,"

connected

(shield); switchable

for

"hot."

XLR's are un-

balanced and in parallel with two tip-sleeve

(standard) phone jacks.

Output Connectors:

Standard 3/4-inch spacing, "5-way" binding posts.

Meters and Indicators:

Two peak reading meters (one per channel) indicate

the instantaneous power output, over a 5-decade

(50dB) range. "0dB" represents 100 Watts into

8 ohms. (P-2200 only)

One "power ON" indicator LED; one "Thermal

Overload" indicator LED.

Meter Rise Time (P-2200 only):

Less

than

milliseconds;

(-40dB

0dB

on the scale).

Meter Release Time (P-2200 only):

Less

than

0.8

seconds; (0dB

-20dB

the

meter scale).

Meter Accuracy (P-2200 only):

See graph, Figure 13, Page FOUR 2.

Controls:

22-position, log-linear, detented, and dB-calibrated

INPUT ATTENUATORS (one per channel)

attenuate input signal in 2dB steps from 0dB

attenuation to -34dB, then steps of -37dB, -42dB,

-50dB, infinity; Power (ON-OFF) switch; INPUT

POLARITY switches.

Fuses:

AGC (3AG) type, 7-amps x 2 parallel fuses for the

AC line input (U.S. and Canadian models).

4-amps x 2 parallel fuses for the AC line input

(other territories' models).

Dimensions:

Mounts in a standard 19-inch (48cm) rack. 7" high

(17.6cm); maximum depth behind front panel is

13" (33.0cm); maximum depth including front

handles 14-1/2" (37.9cm).

Weight:

P-2200; 44 pounds (20kg), P2201; 42 pounds (19kg).

Color:

Semi-gloss black.

MONAURAL MODE SPECIFICATIONS

Power Output: (Refer to Figures 14 and 15.)

400

Watts

continuous

average

sine

wave

power

into

ohms

with

less

than

0.05%

THD,

20Hz

20kHz.

Frequency Response: (Refer to Figure 16)

+0dB, -1dB, 20Hz to 50kHz.

Total Harmonic Distortion: (Refer to Figures 17 and 18.)

Less

than

0.01%

300

Watts

into

ohms at 1kHz.

Intermodulation Distortion:

Less than 0.05% using frequencies of 70Hz and 7kHz,

mixed in a ratio of 4:1, at a power output of 200

Watts into 16 ohms.

Input Sensitivity:

An input of 0dB (0.775 Volts), ±0.5dB, produces an

output of 200 Watts into 16 ohms (INPUT attenuator

set for minimum attenuation, maximum level).

Input Impedance:

25K-ohms minimum (unbalanced).

Damping Factor: (@ 16 ohms) (Refer to Figures 19

and20).

Greater than 220 at any frequency from 20Hz to

1kHz; greater than 100 at any frequency from 20Hz

to 20kHz.

Hum and Noise:

At least 110dB signal-to-noise ratio (I.H.F./A.S.A.

No. Z24.3-1944).

Slew Rate:

35 volts per microsecond, or better, at 100 Watts into

16 ohms, 200kHz square wave input.

Specifications subject to change without notice.

PERFORMANCE GRAPHS &

A DISCUSSION OF SPECIFICATIONS

NOTE: In the discussion beginning on Page FOUR 5,

references to specific specifications assume normal stereo

operation (not mono operation) unless otherwise indicated.

Normal (Stereo) Graphs

Fig. 3 - Power Bandwidth vs Load Impedance Fig. 4 - Load Impedance vs Output Power

Fig. 5 - Frequency Response vs Load

Fig. 6A - T.H.D. vs Output Power at 8 Load Impedance

(both channels driven)

Fig.

T.H.D.

Output

Power at

Load Impedance

(both channels driven)

Fig. 7 - Intermodulation Distortion vs Power Output at

8 and 16 Load Impedance

Fig. 8 - Damping Factor vs Frequency at 8 Load

Impedance

Fig. 9 - Actual Output Impedance vs Frequency Fig. 10 - Crosstalk (Channel Separation)

Fig. 11 - Phase Response vs Frequency Fig. 12 - Power Consumption

Fig. 13 - Peak Program Meter Accuracy (P-2200 only)

Mono Mode Graphs

Fig. 14 - Power Bandwidth vs Frequency (Mono Mode)

at 16 Load Impedance

Fig. 15 - Load Impedance vs Output Power (Mono Mode)

at 0.1%

T.H.D.,

1kHz

Fig. 16 - Frequency Response (Mono Mode) at 16 Load

Impedance

Fig. 17 - T.H.D. vs Power Output (Mono Mode) at 16

Load Impedance

Fig. 18 - T.H.D. vs Frequency (Mono Mode) at 16 Load

Impedance

Fig. 19 - Damping Factor vs Frequency (Mono Mode) at

16 Load Impedance

Fig. 20 - Actual Output Impedance (Mono Mode) vs

Frequency

The following are actual oscilloscope photographs

made by an independent testing laboratory. The close

vertical

alignment

input

and

output

traces

Fig.

through

depicts

very

low

phase

shift,

the

amplifier

will

not

alter

musical

wave

shapes.

Fig. 21 - 10Hz Square-Wave Response

The output waveform displays very respectable

low frequency

response.

The slight

tilt

shows

gain

unity,

which

prevents

damage

speakers in the event any DC offset is fed to the

amplifier input.

Fig. 22 - 1,000Hz Square-Wave Response

Near-perfect response is evident in the duplica-

tion

of the

input

waveform

the

output

wave-

form. There are no "squiggles" or spikes, mean-

ing there Is no ringing or overshoot.

Fig. 23 - 20,000Hz Square-Wave Response

The extremely fast and symmetrical rise and

fall times of the amplifier are evident, demon-

strating the ability to accurately reproduce

musical waveforms and harmonics well beyond

the range of human hearing.

Fig. 24 - 1,000Hz Sine Wave, shown with Highly-

Magnified Noise and Distortion Components

Even

full

230 watt

output

(8-ohms), the

P-2200's distortion is so low that it is almost

burried in the noise, which is at least 110dB

below the

sine

wave

output.

The

sine

wave

clean and symmetrical.

Fig.

25-20,000Hz

Sine

Wave,

shown

with

Highly-

Magnified Noise and Distortion Components

While no amplifier should ever have to pro-

duce 230 watts continuous output at 20kHz,

the

P-2200

does

with

low

distortion,

and

symmetrical reproduction. As In Fig. 11, the

noise (magnified here) is actually better than

110dB below the sine wave.

Fig. 26 - Square-Wave Response into a Highly-

Inductive Load (at 1kHz)

The ability of the P-2200 to maintain a

sharply defined square wave output into a

reactive load demonstrates stability under the

worst conditions. There is still a complete lack

of unwanted ringing, as well as low phase shift.

Fig. 27 - Unit-step Function Response

POWER OUTPUT

Types of Power Ratings

Peak power refers to the maximum undistorted power

output of an amplifier. Most amplifiers cannot sustain

their peak power ratings for long periods of time without

external cooling fans. Because there are many different

methods of rating an amplifier's peak power, it is hard to

objectively compare the peak power ratings of two

amplifiers. The peak power rating is primarily useful

for determining an amplifier's ability to reproduce the

peaks and transients in a musical program, peaks which

may be 20dB or more above the average power level.

The ability to accurately reproduce these high power

peaks in a musical program is one of the most important

advantages of the P-2200 as compared to a smaller

power amplifier.

"RMS"power is actually a misnomer for average

power. Average power is usually measured with a sine

wave input signal, and is equal to the amplifier's RMS

output voltage squared and then divided by the load

impedance (see Appendix). Because RMS voltage is used

in the formula, the resulting power rating is commonly

called "RMS power." While it means the same as "RMS

power," to be more accurate, the P-2200 is rated in watts

of "continuous average sine wave power."

Since the P-2200 is a professional power amplifier,

not sold for home hi-fi use, it is not required to meet the

power rating standard set by the FTC (Federal Trade

Commission), a standard meant for consumer power

amplifiers. However, the P-2200 is measured under

severe conditions which simulate the most demanding

professional usage. Thus, the P-2200 would easily meet

the FTC ratings for consumer amplifiers. In addition,

the P-2200 user has the benefits of professional features

and reliability.

Reasons for a High Power Amplifier

An interesting characteristic of the human ear is

described by the "Weber-Fechner" law. In its general

form, the law applies to all our senses:

The amount of additional stimulus needed to

produce a perceptible change is dependent on the

amount of stimulus already present.

In mathematical terms, the Weber-Fechner law

suggests that the human ear responds to changes in

sound level in a logarithmic manner. More simply this

means that for a sound to seem twice as loud, it requires

approximately ten times as much acoustic power (and

therefore ten times as much amplifier power). Thus, the

P-2200's high power output capabilities are extremely

valuable.

One of the other benefits of high power output is the

ability of the amplifier to easily reproduce high peak

power transients (which may be 100 times the average

program power, or even more). This subject is discussed

further

Pages

FIVE 2 and

FIVE

Power Output versus Load

Within its maximum limits, the P-2200 acts like a

perfect voltage source (see Appendix), that is, its power

output

rises

with

decreasing

load impedance.

When

the

load impedance drops below 2.5 ohms, the P-2200's

protection circuits begin to limit the power, resulting

in the curve shown in Figure 4 (normal operation) and

Figure 15 (mono operation).

DISTORTION (Refer to Figures 6A-B, 7, 17, 18)

The P-2200 is designed to have the lowest possible

distortion. There are many different forms of distortion,

however, and comprehensive distortion ratings offer a

means to compare the performance of different

amplifiers.

Harmonic Distortion, is characterized by the appear-

ance at the amplifier output of harmonics of the input

waveform which were not present in the original input

waveform. Total Harmonic Distortion, or T.H.D. is the

sum total of all of these unwanted harmonics expressed

as a percentage of the total signal.

Harmonic distortion, in an amplifier, can be created

in any of several ways. The T.H.D. rating of a power

amplifier refers to creation of unwanted harmonics by

the amplifier during "linear" operation (normal input

and output levels, impedances, etc.). Harmonic distortion

also

created by

"clipping,"

form

"non-linear"

operation, which occurs when the signal level at an

amplifier's input is high enough to drive the amplifier

beyond its rated maximum output. The amplifier, in

attempting to reproduce this signal, reaches its maximum

output voltage swing before it reproduces the top of the

signal waveforms. Since the output voltage cannot rise

any farther, the tops of the waveform are "squared off,"

or clipped, as that shown in Figure 65. Clipping dis-

tortion adds odd upper harmonics (3rd harmonic,

5th, etc.) to the original signal. (Input clipping would

be similar, where the input stage of the amplifier is

overdriven by a high level input signal.) The P-2200 has

wide input headroom and extremely high peak power

output capabilities (headroom) to help avoid the pro-

blems of clipping distortion.

Another form of harmonic distortion that occurs in

some power amplifiers is called crossover distortion. *

Crossover distortion can be caused by improper bias in the

output transistors of an amplifier. The amount of cross-

over distortion stays the same whether the signal is large

or small, so the percentage of distortion goes down as

the

signal

level

goes

up.

Thus,

amplifier

with

crossover

distortion may sound relatively distortion free at high

output

levels,

yet sound

fuzzy

at low

levels.

Some

amplifiers have internal adjustments which enable a

service technician to control the amount of output

transistor bias, and therefore control the distortion. The

P-2200 has automatic biasing circuitry which needs no

adjustment and avoids crossover distortion under all

operating conditions.

Fig. 28A - Large Amplitude Sine Wave with Crossover

(notch) Distortion.

Fig. 28B - Smaller Amplitude Sine Wave with same amount

(higher %) of Crossover (notch) Distortion.

"Crossover," in this case. refers to the transition between the

positive half and the negative half of the output voltage wave-

form in a "push-pull" class B or AB power amplifier: it has

nothing to do with the crossover used to divide frequencies in

a speaker system. See Figure 28.

Intermodulation Distortion, or I.M. is characterized

by the appearance in the output waveform of fre-

quencies that are equal to sums and differences of

integral multiples of two or more of the frequencies

present in the input signal. The difference between inter-

modulation distortion and harmonic distortion is that

two or more different frequencies must be present to

produce intermodulation distortion (only one frequency

is needed for harmonic distortion to appear), and that

intermodulation distortion products may not be

harmonically related to the original frequencies. Like its

harmonic distortion figure, the intermodulation dis-

tortion in the P-2200 is low enough to be virtually

inaudible even in the most critical situations.

Dynamic Frequency Response Shift is related to both

harmonic and intermodulation distortion. When high-level

low and high frequency signals are present in the same

waveform,

the

high

frequency

signals

"ride"

top

the

low frequency waveforms (see Figure 65, Page SEVEN 1).

amplifier

headroom

inadequate,

the

low frequencies

may

"push"

the

high

frequencies above the

output

limits

of the amplifier, clipping them off the waveform (Figure

65C). The low frequencies may remain unaltered, but the

high frequencies are severely reduced. At the same time,

harmonics of the high frequencies are produced which

add to the super high frequency content of the signal.

Thus, along with the distortion created by the clipping,

the frequency response of the original signal is drastically

altered. This type of distortion can be reduced by in-

creasing system headroom (using a more powerful

amplifier like the P-2200), and by biamplifying the

system as discussed on Page SEVEN 1.

The extremely low distortion figures of the P-2200

indicate its overall quality and mean that its sound will

be precise and natural.

FREQUENCY RESPONSE (Refer to Figures 5 & 16)

The frequency response of the P-2200 describes the

variation in its output signal level with frequency when

the

input

signal

held constant. The extremely

flat

frequency response curve of the P-2200 is an indication

of its overall quality and its ability to respond to upper

and lower harmonics of signals all the way to the

extremes of the audio spectrum.

Because extreme stability is necessary for some types

of commercial sound applications, notably 70-volt lines

(see Page SEVEN 11), some manufacturers restrict fre-

quency response or allow relatively high distortion in

return for increased amplifier stability. The P-2200, on

the other hand, has excellent frequency response and

ultra-low distortion, yet is inherently stable under the

most difficult loads, even in the "mono" mode.

The frequency response of the P-2200 has been

intentionally limited, however, at very low frequencies

(sub-audio). Because of this, severe low frequency

transients, or DC offset, appearing at the input to the

P-2200 are unlikely to damage a speaker load. Other

amplifiers which are DC coupled throughout may have a

"flatter"

sub-audio frequency

response,

but

this

makes

them capable of amplifying dangerous DC input voltage

or sub-audio transients and delivering them (at high

power) to a speaker.

OFFSET VOLTAGE

This specification indicates the amount of DC voltage

naturally present at the output of the amplifier. A high

DC voltage could damage the loudspeaker load; the

±10mV (10 one-thousandths of a volt) level from the

P-2200 is insignificant.

UNIT STEP FUNCTION RESPONSE (Refer to Figure 27)

A unit step function is like the leading edge of a

square wave; it goes up, but never comes down. The

response to this input indicates the output of the P-2200

for a DC input signal which might come from a faulty

direct coupled preamplifier or mixer. Note that the

P-2200 will not reproduce a DC voltage fed to its input,

thus adding an extra measure of loudspeaker protection.

POWER BANDWIDTH (Refer to Figures 3 & 14)

The power bandwidth of the P-2200 is a measure of

its ability to produce high power output over a wide

frequency range. The limits of the power bandwidth are

those points where the P-2200 can only produce 1/2 the

power that it can produce at 1000Hz. While the

frequency response is measured at relatively low power

output (1 watt), the power bandwidth is measured at the

P-2200's full power output (before clipping). The power

bandwidth

the

P-2200

quite

flat

and extends

200kHz, well beyond the limits of the audio spectrum.

The wide power bandwidth of the P-2200 means that

it can reproduce high level upper harmonics of a signal

as easily as it can reproduce mid-range fundamentals. It

means

that

you

get

full

power performance

from

the

P-2200 over the entire audio frequency spectrum. This is

especially important when the amplifier is called upon

to reproduce musical material with high energy over a

wide frequency range, such as rock and roll.

PHASE RESPONSE (Refer to Figure

)

The phase response of the P-2200 is a measure of the

amount of time delay it adds to different frequencies.

An amplifier with perfect phase response would introduce

equal time delay at all frequencies reproduced. The

P-2200's worst case phase shift of -10 degrees at 20kHz

corresponds to a 1.4 microsecond (1.4 millionths of a

second) delay period which is insignificant in even the

most critical audio applications.

Fig. 29 - Waveform of Amplifier with Poor Phase Response.

An amplifier with poor phase response would change

the shape of a waveform that was made up of a funda-

mental frequency and several harmonics by delaying

each harmonic differently. The effect might be similar

to that shown in Figure 29.

CHANNEL SEPARATION (Refer to Figure 10)

This specification indicates the output from one

channel when a signal is fed to the other channel. The

P-2200's channel separation is very good, which means

that

even

critical

stereo programs

will

be unaffected by

crosstalk between channels.

HUM AND NOISE

Hum or noise from a power amplifier disrupts a

program, and is irritating to a listener. Hum and noise

could be considered a form of distortion. The P-2200's

hum and noise are so low that they are completely

inaudible under any normal listening circumstances.

RISE TIME

Rise time is a measurement of the amount of time an

amplifier requires to respond to a square wave at a

specified frequency. The rise time of an amplifier is an

indication of its frequency response. A fast rise time

corresponds to a wide frequency response. The P-2200's

rise

time

specification

measured

with

1000Hz

square

wave output signal of one volt peak-to-peak amplitude.

The rise time is the time the amplifier requires to change

from 10% (0.1 volt) to 90% (0.9 volt) of its output. To

improve measurement accuracy, the first and last 10%

are normally not included in the test (any slight non-

linearities that occur in the test signal or the amplifier

could lead to measurement error).

SLEW RATE

Slew rate is a measure of a power amplifier's ability

to follow a fast rising waveform at higher frequencies

and higher power outputs than the rise time measure-

ment. The P-2200's slew rate is measured with a 200kHz

square wave input signal, at 175 Watts output power

into 8 ohms.

It might seem reasonable to assume that the fastest

slew rate for an audio waveform occurs at 20kHz.

However, this is not the case. When one frequency is

superimposed upon another, the combined waveform

has a slew rate that is greater than the slew rate of

either signal by itself. The actual value of the slew rate

of one of these waveforms (or any waveform) depends

not only on the frequency, but on the amplitude of the

waveform as well. Thus, the criteria for a good slew rate

specification, which indicates that an amplifier can

reproduce these combination waveforms, varies with

the maximum power output capability of the amplifier.

The higher the power, the higher the required slew rate.

With a 45 volts/microsecond slew rate, the P-2200 can

easily reproduce even the most extreme audio wave-

forms at its full power output.

INPUT IMPEDANCE

The input impedance of the P-2200 is high enough

to allow it to be used with most semi-pro devices, or to

used

"bridging"

load

for

600-ohm source.

Page SIX 2 details input impedance and level matching

for the P-2200.

INPUT SENSITIVITY

The P-2200's input sensitivity indicates the input

drive voltage needed for the P-2200 to produce its

rated output of 230 watts into 8 ohms (input attenua-

tors are adjusted to maximum clockwise rotation for

minimum attenuation).

PROTECTION CIRCUITS AND

THERMAL SPECIFICATIONS

See the discussions under INSTALLATION, on

Page SIX 13.

GAIN

Gain is the ratio of the P-2200's output voltage to its

input voltage. Maximum gain occurs when the input

attenuators are set for minimum attenuation. If the input

and output voltage are specified in dB, the voltage gain is

equal to the difference of the two dB numbers. As stated

under INPUT SENSITIVITY, an input voltage of +4dB

(1.23 volts) produces an output power of 230 watts into

an 8-ohm load. 230 watts into 8 ohms implies an

output voltage of 43 volts which corresponds to +35dB

(referenced to 0.775 volts, as used in this manual). The

voltage gain of the P-2200, with its input attenuators set

for minimum attenuation, then, is 31dB [(+35dB)-(+4dB)].

OUTPUT IMPEDANCE (Refer to Figures 9 & 20)

The output impedance of the P-2200 is extremely

low. Thus, within its operating limits, the P-2200 is a

good approximation of a perfect voltage source and will

deliver increasing power levels into lower impedance

loads in a linear fashion according to Ohm's law. The

Appendix discusses Ohm's law and the concept of a

perfect voltage source.

DAMPING FACTOR

Damping factor is a term that is derived by

dividing the load impedance (speaker or other load) by

the amplifier's output impedance. Thus, a high damping

factor indicates a low output impedance at a specified

load.

The cone/voice-coil assembly of a loudspeaker gains

inertia during its back and forth movements. This

inertia can cause it to "overshoot," that is, to continue

movement in one direction, even when the amplifier

is trying to pull it back in the other direction. An

amplifier with a low output impedance can "damp"

(reduce) unwanted loudspeaker motions, as explained

below.

Fig. 30A - Speaker Cone at Rest

Fig. 30B - Speaker Cone moved outward by Postive-Going

Voltage from Amplifier.

Fig. 30C -

Voltage from Amplifier has dropped to Zero but

Speaker Cone has moved back PAST its rest position (overshoot)

and is producing a voltage of its own: "Back EMF"

During the "overshoot" movement, the voice coil of

the loudspeaker interacts with the loudspeaker's magnetic

assembly to produce a voltage called "back E.M.F."

(electro-motive force). This action is similar to the

operation of a dynamic microphone. If the amplifier's

output impedance is low, this "back E.M.F." voltage is

shunted through the amplifier's output circuits to

ground, and back to the voice coil. Since the path from

the voice coil, through the amplifier's output circuits,

and back to the voice coil is a complete circuit, a

current flows in the voice coil. This current, causes

the voice coil to act like an electro-magnet; the electro-

magnet (voice coil) interacts with the magnetic assembly

of the loudspeaker, and the unwanted overshoot is

reduced (a magnetic braking action).

Fig. 31 - Current produced by "Back EMF" follows path

through Amplifier's Output Impedance to speaker-coil.

If the amplifier's output impedance is low (con-

siderably less than the impedance of the loudspeaker

voice coil), this damping action is limited only by the

resistance of the voice coil combined with the resistance

of the speaker lead wires. While the value of a high

damping factor in reducing cone overshoot is disputed,

the P-2200's high damping factor is evidence of good

overall engineering design.

THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN

PROFESSIONAL AND HI-FI

EQUIPMENT

In most applications, a variety of auxiliary equipment

will be connected to the P-2200, including: mixers, tape

machines, compressors, graphic equalizers, echo, time

delay, and reverb units, and just about any other audio

electronics imaginable. Regardless of the function of

auxiliary equipment, it will undoubtedly fall into one of

two general categories, professional type or hi-fi type.

The following criteria place most "semi-pro" equipment

in the hi-fi classification.

The distinction between professional and hi-fi equip-

ment is important primarily because it affects the way it

will be used with the P-2200. Brand name, size, panel

colors, durability and subtleties in function are not the

significant differences. What matters is that professional

equipment and hi-fi equipment usually operate at

different input and output levels, and require different

source and load impedances to function properly. The

P-2200 is designed to function well with other pro-

fessional equipment, although it has high enough input

impedance and sensitivity to yield excellent results with

hi-fi type equipment if a few precautions are observed.

(These precautions are outlined in the Installation sec-

tion of the manual.) The following paragraphs explain

how the specific requirements differ for professional and

hi-fi (or semi-pro) equipment.

IMPEDANCE

The inputs of a piece of professional audio equipment

are usually designed to be driven from a low impedance

source,

nominally

150

600 ohms, and its

outputs

will

drive low impedance (600 ohm or higher) loads. (Power

amplifier outputs are not considered in this discussion.)

Professional input and output circuits may be

unbalanced, but they are often transformer isolated

(balanced or floating), and use dual conductor shielded

cables, with 3-pin XLR type connectors or Tip/Ring/

Sleeve phone plugs.

The P-2200's inputs are unbalanced due to cost and

adaptability factors. To internally balance the inputs of

the P-2200 would require two matched input transfor-

mers with heavy shielding (to avoid hum pickup from

the P-2200's power transformer). Induced hum in low

level circuits, especially in low level transformers, can

be a problem with any power amplifier, or other high

current device (such as a DC power supply). High quality

external

transformers

with

less

shielding can achieve

the

same

results

with

substantial cost

savings.

addition,

the user can choose the optimum impedance ratio for

a given situation, increasing the P-2200's adaptability.

Either the "matching transformer box" or "step up

transformer box" described on Pages SIX 3, and SIX 4

are suitable, so long as they are kept several inches

away from the P-2200.

Hi-fi (and semi-pro) equipment generally is designed

to be driven from a 5,000-ohm (or lower impedance)

source, and its output will drive 10,000-ohm (or higher

impedance) loads. Hi-fi input and output circuits are

usually unbalanced, and use single conductor shielded

cables with 2-conductor connectors, either standard

phone plugs or phono plugs (also called RCA or pin

plugs). Occasionally, the inputs of a piece of hi-fi or

semi-pro equipment are professional XLR connectors

which have been converted to a 2-wire, unbalanced

circuit by internally connecting either pin 2 or pin 3

The nature of unbalanced, balanced, and floating

circuitry is discussed further in the Appendix of this

manual. For the purpose of this discussion, the most

significant point is that an unbalanced circuit is some-

what more susceptible to hum and noise, especially if

there is any irregularity in the grounding system.

NOTE: THERE IS NO CORRELATION BETWEEN

"BALANCED" OR "FLOATING" AND CIRCUIT

IMPEDANCE.

Low impedance and high impedance are relative

terms. A 150- to 250-ohm microphone is considered low

impedance, whereas a 10,000-ohm mic is considered

high impedance. A 600-ohm line is considered low

impedance, whereas 10,000-ohm, 50,000-ohm or

250,000-ohm lines are all considered high impedance.

Sometimes, mics and lines with an impedance of 600

ohms to about 2000 ohms are considered "medium"

impedance. NOTE: THE IMPEDANCE OF A CIRCUIT

SAYS NOTHING ABOUT ITS LEVEL.

While the exact transition between low and high

impedance is not clearly defined, the distinction is still

important, primarily because the output impedance of a

source determines the length of cable that can be

connected between it and a load before a serious loss

of high frequencies occurs. The losses occur because all

cables, and especially shielded cables, have some

capacitance between their conductors. Some guitar

coil cords may measure as high as 1000 picofarads total

capacitance! A source impedance (such as a high

impedance mixer output) and the capacitance of a

cable form a type of low-pass filter a filter that attenu-

ates high frequencies. This filtering effect, can be

reduced by using low capacitance cable, by shortening

the length of the cable, by using a low impedance source

or by some combination of these methods.

Fig. 32 - The Source's Output Impedance and the Cable

Capacitance act as an "RC Lowpass" Filter which Attenuates

High Frequencies.

Cables from high impedance sources (5000 ohms and

up), should not be any longer than 25', even if low

capacitance cable is used; shorten the cables if the

impedance is higher. For low impedance sources of 600

ohms or less, cable lengths to 100' are relatively effective.

For very low impedance sources of 50-ohms or less,

cable lengths of up to 1000 feet are possible with

minimal loss. However, the frequency response of the

source, the desired frequency response of the system,

and the amount of capacitance and resistance in the

cable all play a role in any potential high frequency

losses. Thus, these values are meant as guide lines, and

should not be considered fixed rules.

For short runs and in smaller systems with fewer

components, the performance of an unbalanced circuit

may be adequate. In a long cable run, a balanced or

floating circuit tends to reject hum and noise pickup

better than an unbalanced circuit, and in complex

systems, with several components separated by some

distance and running on different AC outlets, balanced

or floating circuits make proper grounding much easier.

In any given situation, the decision to use a hi-fi

(semi-pro) device or a professional one should be based

on the specifications of the inputs and outputs of that

device and on the requirements of the application.

OPERATING LEVELS

Nominal professional line level is usually +4dBm or

+8dBm; that is, the average program level is approxi-

mately 1.23V rms (+4dBm), or 1.95V rms (+8dBm)

terminated by a 600-ohm line. The peak level may

extend to about +24dBm (12.3V rms). The line (high

level) input of professional audio equipment is

designed to accept levels on this order of magnitude

without overdrive (clipping distortion); most pro-

fessional equipment can be driven to full output by

nominal +4dBm input (source) levels, although a few

units require +8dBm (1.95V rms) at their input to

yield full output. See the discussion of "Gain Overlap"

on Page FIVE 4.

Hi-fi type equipment operates at considerably lower

line levels than professional equipment (with exceptions),

usually at -16dB (0.123 volts) nominal levels. Notice we

use

the

expression

not

dBm

This

because

"dBm" denotes a power level (relative to 1mW, or

0.775V rms across a 600-ohm impedance), whereas "dB"

denotes a voltage level (as defined in this manual) rela-

tive to 0.775V rms. This is a subtle distinction, and is

explained in greater detail in the Appendix on Page

EIGHT 1, and on Page THREE 1 of the specifications.

The nominal -16dB (0.123 volts) level of hi-fi

equipment is equal to 123mV rms (123 one-thousandths

of a volt) across a 10,000-ohm or higher impedance line.

Peak program levels may reach or slightly exceed +4dB

(1.23V rms across a high impedance line). Note that a

hi-fi unit capable of +4dB (1.23 volts) maximum output

into

high impedance,

does

not

possess

adequate drive

for 600-ohm circuits with nominal +4dBm level require-

ments. Thus, hi-fi equipment is usually incapable of

driving professional equipment to its full rated output,

at least not without first reaching a high level of

distortion. Moreover, when the output of hi-fi equip-

ment (which is almost always meant to be operated

into a high impedance) is connected directly to the low

impedance input of professional equipment, the hi-fi

unit "sees" a partial short circuit. This may overload the

hi-fi output, or it may simply drop the output level by a

few dB, depending on the circuitry. The P-2200's input

sensitivity and input impedance are high enough to allow

its use with some hi-fi or semi-pro equipment, however

it's a good idea to check the specifications for each

situation. The point of this discussion, is that impedance

and level are extremely important considerations when

connecting audio equipment.

DYNAMIC RANGE

Every sound system has an inherent noise floor

which is the residual electronic noise in the system

equipment (or acoustic noise in a room). The effective

dynamic range of a system is equal to the difference

between the peak output level of the system and its

noise floor.

A concert with sound levels ranging from 30dB SPL

to 120dB SPL has a 90dB dynamic range. The electrical

signal level in the sound system (given in dB of voltage)

is proportional to the original sound pressure level (given

in dB SPL) at the microphone. Thus, when the program

sound levels reach 120dB SPL, maximum electrical

levels (at the mixer's output) might reach +24dB (12.3

volts), and maximum power output levels (at the

P-2200's

output)

might

reach

230

watts

into

an 8-ohm

load. Similarly, where sound levels drop to 30dB SPL,

minimum electrical levels will drop to -66dB (0.388

milli-volts) and power levels will drop to 230 nano-watts

(230 billionths of a watt; these levels are not uncom-

mon). The program still has an electrical dynamic range

of 90dB: [+24dB (12.3 volts)] - [-66dBm (0.388

micro-volts)] = 90dB. This dB to dB correspondence is

maintained throughout the sound system, from the

original source at the microphone, through the

electrical portion of the sound system, to the speaker

system output. A similar correspondence holds for any

other type of sound system, a recording studio system,

disco system or a broadcast system.

Generally, the average electrical line level in the

above sound system is +4dB (1.23 volts) corresponding

to an average sound level of 100dB SPL. This average

level is usually called the nominal program level. The

difference between the nominal and the highest (peak)

levels in a program is the headroom. In the above

example, the headroom is 120dB SPL -100dB SPL =

20dB (not 20dB SPL). Similarly, the electrical head-

room is [+24dB (12.3 volts)] - [+4dB (1.23 volts)] =

20dB (not 20dBm, see Appendix). This corresponds to a

power headroom which is also 20dB.

In the above example, if the system had an

electronic noise floor of -56dB (1.23 millivolts), and

a peak output level of +18dB (6.16 volts), its dynamic

range would only be 74dB. If the original program has

a dynamic range of 90dB, then 16dB of the program is

lost in the sound system. There may be extreme clipping

of program peaks, some of the low levels may be buried

in the noise, or some of the program may be lost in both

ways. Thus, it is extremely important to use wide

dynamic range equipment, like the P-2200 and Yamaha

PM-Mixers, in a professional sound reinforcement system.

In the special case of a tape recorder, where the

dynamic range is limited by the noise floor and

distortion levels of the tape itself, one way to avoid

these program losses due to clipping and noise is to

"compress" the program's dynamic range (see Page

SEVEN 3). A better way is to apply special "noise

reduction equipment" which allows the original program

dynamics to be maintained throughout the recording

and playback process. This improvement in the dynamic

range of recorded material again demands wide dynamic

range from every piece of equipment in the recording/

playback chain, including the power amplifier.

Fig. 33 - Dynamic Range in an Audio System

NOTE: The P-2200 actually has a maximum signal to noise ratio of 110dB

(which is its dynamic range!. The SYSTEM'S Dynamic Range is limited by

acoustic noise at the mic input, for the system shown, and by the maximum

signal to noise ratio of the PM-700 Mixer (93dB), a very respectable figure for

a high gain device.

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